first special service force roster

They left ship at Camp Stoneman, California, and returned to Fort Ethan Allen for additional training and testing, arriving on 9 September. [43] In the end, Frederick's fears were unfounded as the men bonded through training and dedication to the force.[44]. Most of the men went into Helena to relax on their days off. One soldier recalls the severity of the shelling: It looked as if we were marching into Hell. Villeneuve-Loubet holds a special place in the history of the force, not only because the unit was broken up there, but also because it is one of the villages that the 1st SSF had the hardest time capturing in southern France, on 26 August 1944. Usually there is a combined parachute jump, a pass in review, and a formal ball. Because neither Britain nor Norway could supply the troops, this new unit would be comprised of American and Canadian soldiers. Others were dressed in trousers and green uniform jackets and wore green caps. On 15 August 1943, the First Special Service Force participated in its first operation. Combined German and Italian strength at Anzio was an estimated 70,000 men. Commands for marching, for example, had to be homogenized in order for the unit to operate in the field effectively. Soldiers were given Saturday evenings and Sundays off. This allowed the combat units to focus on training while the Service Battalion handled work details, maintenance, administration, food services, etc. Initially, the soldiers were given the order to hold their fire until 6am, but the Germans were made aware of the allied positions after members of the force tripped over loose gravel while moving along the mountaintop. To end the ceremony, the Canadian elements were dismissed by being honoured by the American troops with a Pass in Review, eyes right, officers salute. The day the unit was disbanded, the American commander held a parade honouring the unit. This is where the Force was given the name The Black Devils by the Germans, because of their blackened faces and stealth in combat. A large number of the "Devil's Brigade" members were honored for their acts of valor, including Tommy Prince, Canada's most decorated First Nations soldier of World War II. 1 st Special Forces Regiment Constituted 5 July 1942 in the Army of the United States as the 2d Company, 1st Battalion, First Regiment, 1st Special Service Force, a combined. The 1st Special Forces Group (Airborne) has a long and storied history serving the Nation during peacetime and war. We were established in 1983 as a member-based, charitable 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. In the nearly nine months spent training at Fort Harrison, the members of the Force from both nations were adopted by the citizens of Helena who were proud to have such a unit training in their own backyard. http://www.helenair.com/articles/2002/08/17/stories/helena/6a1.txt. He sold the idea to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and General George C. Marshall during a planning conference in London. By contrast the Canadians are portrayed as spit and polish professionals who view with disdain the undisciplined yanks. [8] (Johnson went on to form and command the 501st Parachute Infantry Regiment.) Through gun and mortar fire, the men of the 2nd Regiment managed to set up machine guns and return fire, surprising and overwhelming the Germans. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, teams of Special Forces Soldiers deployed to Laos to work with the Royal Laotian Army. Quentin Tarantino's 2009 film Inglourious Basterds features a character named Lt. Aldo Raine aka "Aldo the Apache" played by Brad Pitt who wears the unit's crossed arrows collar insignia and red arrowhead shoulder patch. Reconnaissance missions performed by the Devils often went as deep as 1,500 feet (460m) behind enemy lines. Tarantino cited the 1SSF as an influence.[51]. Indeed, General Frederick ordered several trucks to move around the forces area in order to give the enemy the impression that the force comprised more men than it actually did. The plan for Operation Plough was given to Major General Dwight D. Eisenhower and ended up on the desk of one of his staff officers, Lieutenant Colonel Robert T. Frederick who reviewed it and reported to Eisenhower that it was militarily unworkable. Forcemen were armed with a variety weapons, both standard issue and otherwise. It has pictures, videos, and/or stories about some of the men and service in the Force. On 15 August 1943, 1st SSF was part of the invasion force of the island of Kiska, but after discovering the island had been recently evacuated by Japanese forces, it re-embarked and left ship at Camp Stoneman, California, and returned to Fort Ethan Allen, arriving 9 September 1943.[14]. Equipped with Pyke's proposed snow vehicle, they would attack strategic targets, such as hydroelectric power plants. Canadian and American members of the Force who lost their lives are buried near the beach in the Commonwealth Anzio War Cemetery and the American Cemetery in Nettuno, just east of Anzio. The basic concept, which came from the staff of Lord Louis Mountbattens Combined Operations Command, called for a force able to fight on land, on the sea, in the air, and in winter conditions. Three documentaries have been made about the force: "Black Devils" in 2000, an episode of History Channel's "Dangerous Missions" series, written produced and directed by Darryl Rehr; Daring to Die: The Story of the Black Devils, written and directed by Greg Hancock and Wayne Abbot,[47] and Devil's Brigade, a 2006 TV miniseries produced by Frantic Films.[48]. This picture was in one of my grandparents photo albums. The force was tasked with taking two heavily fortified German positions in the Italian mountains; one at Monte La Difensa and the other at Monte La Remetanea. The combat force was to be made up of three regiments. In Vietnam, Special Forces Soldiers, initially, from 1st and 7th Groups, worked as advisors to the Vietnamese army and the Civilian Irregular Defense Forces. [28], German prisoners were often surprised at how few men the force actually contained. American members of the Force arrived for training in Helena in standard U.S. Army attire: green twill coveralls, some wearing khaki pants and fatigue hats. MacWilliam (who would lead the 2nd Regiments assault on Remetanea) believed that the best way to approach the entrenched enemy was up an almost vertical escarpment over the right of the hill mass. Indeed, General Frederick ordered several trucks to move around the Forces area in order to give the enemy the impression that the Force comprised more men than it actually did. When that mission was canceled, the FSSF was repurposed for combat operations in the . When the Special Forces Tab was created in 1983 for wear by members of the U.S. Army Special Forces, it was also retroactively awarded to members of wartime combat units that had been identified as predecessors of the Special Forces. The Special Force brigade was withdrawn from the mountains in January and on 1 February was landed at the beachhead created by Operation Shingle at Anzio, south of Rome, replacing the 1st and 3rd Ranger Battalions, which had suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Cisterna. The assault was planned for 2 December, while the men were trained in mountain climbing and fighting tactics at their temporary barracks at Santa Maria. An order was found on another prisoner that stated that the Germans in Anzio would be "fighting an elite Canadian-American Force. It also had a small Air Force Detachment and a Service Battalion. 1st Regiment, coupled with U.S. 36th Infantry Division would be the reserve units for the 2nd Regiment. This legacy continues today with lineage to United States and Canadian Special Operation Force (SOF) active-duty units. Pyke requested that a tracked vehicle be developed especially for the unit, capable of carrying men and their equipment at high speed across snow-covered terrain. The men were on a strict and physically demanding three phase training schedule: Please note that Dick is not named in ANY force book. 403 526-7343. johnhart@telus.net. From the outset, the 1st Special Service Force was armed with a variety of non-standard or limited-issue weapons, such as the M1941 Johnson machine gun. On 22 August it was attached to the 1st Airborne Task Force, a provisional Seventh Army airborne division, and later made part of the Task Force. In 251 days of combat, the Force suffered 2,314 casualties, 134% of combat strength, captured over 30,000 prisoners, won five US campaign stars, eight Canadian battle honors, and never failed a mission. United States Army Special Forces Groups (lineal descendants of FSSF) celebrate Menton Day every 5 December with their Canadian military comrades and surviving members of the Force. During the night of 4 June, members of the FSSF entered Rome, the first Allied unit to do so. MacWilliam. One soldier recalls the severity of the shelling: "It looked as if we were marching into Hell. At this point the men were made to ski cross-country in formation from dawn until dusk with all of their equipment until they were up to Norwegian army standards.[36]. The journal contained the following entry: "The Black Devils are all around us every time we come into the line. For installation operating status and inclement weather updates, click the above link. Shortly after the FSSF took over the Mussolini Canal sector, German units pulled back up to 0.5 miles (0.80 km) to avoid their aggressive patrols. This was to have been a commando unit that could be landed, by sea or air, into occupied Norway, Romania and/or the Italian Alps on sabotage missions against hydroelectric plants and oil fields. Command of the Mediterranean Theater was given to British General Henry Maitland Wilson. Following the liberation of Rome, the Force was given the assignment of leading the landings on Southern France, fighting their way to the Franco-Italian border. It was at Anzio that the Germans dubbed the FSSF the Black Devils. There is no record of any German ever referring to the Force as The Devils Brigade. They were referred to as black devils because the Brigades members smeared their faces with black boot polish for their covert operations in the dark of the night. The First Special Service Force was activated on 9 July 1942 as a joint Canadian-U.S. force of three small regiments and a service battalion, directly answerable to the joint Chiefs of Staff. The 1968 film Anzio featured Peter Falk as Corporal Jack Rabinoff, who identified himself to co-star Robert Mitchum as a member of the American-Canadian 1st Special Service Force. The event was video taped and can be viewed or purchased at After the units break up, the Canadians were sent to other Canadian units (most of them became replacements for the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion). Upon reaching the top, MacWilliam signaled his men to move forward into a depression in front of the German entrenchment. Geoffrey Pyke was an English journalist, educationalist, and later an inventor whose clever, but unorthodox, ideas could be difficult to implement. As the training at Fort Harrison neared its end there were tearful farewells from Helena families, some likely as heartfelt as those for their own husbands, fathers, sons and daughters. The 1st SSF was disbanded 5 December 1944 in a field near Villeneuve-Loubet,[33] on the extreme southeast Mediterranean coast of France. Although not in the official lineage, the experiences of other Special Operations elements contributed to the organization and doctrine of Special Forces. Some American members were sent to airborne divisions as replacements, others to Ranger Battalions, and still others formed the 474th Infantry Regiment, which served with the Third United States Army and performed occupation duty in Norway. On the beachhead in Anzio, for example, a nighttime Force patrol walked into a German minefield and was pinned down by machine gun fire. On 7 September it moved with the 1st Airborne Task Force to defensive positions on the Franco-Italian border. The First Special Service Force was activated on 9 July 1942 at Fort William Henry Harrison near Helena, Montana. It was believed that Plough offered the possibility of defeating the Germans, and the Americans wanted allied efforts to shift to the Pacific Theater. Frederick developed the first Table of Organization for the FSSF, what the modern Army calls a Table of Organization and Equipment. The First Special Service Force (FSSF) was formed in 1942 as a top-secret unit made up of US and Canadian soldiers. 3rd Regiment would be split in two, half to supply the 2nd Regiment following the initial assault and the other half to be reserves with the 1st Regiment and 36th Infantry Division. While the origins of U.S. Army Special Forces date back to the French and Indian War and the formation of Rogers Rangers, the modern concepts of unconventional warfare were largely developed in World War II with the formation of several specially trained units. Roger M Pezzelle designed the . [19] Strategically, the mountains provided a commanding view of the countryside and highway, giving German artillery on the mountain control of the surrounding area. After they secured the bridges, they quickly moved north in pursuit of the retreating Germans.In August 1944 FSSF came under the command of Colonel Edwin Walker when Brigadier General Frederick, who had commanded the Force since its earliest days, left on promotion to major general to command the 1st Airborne Task Force. An order was found on another prisoner that stated that the Germans in Anzio would be fighting an elite Canadian-American Force. Canadian bagpipers were put into American unit marching bands to play Reveille every morning. In July 1942, the Canadian Minister of National Defense, James Ralston, approved the assignment of 697 officers and enlisted men for Project Plough, under the guise that they were forming Canadas first airborne unit, the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion (1CPB). The Germans shot flares into the air and the battle began. A combined U.S. and Canadian unit, the FSSF was originally formed to conduct unconventional warfare in Nazi-occupied Norway. They include the Philippine guerrillas, elements of the Special Operations and Operational Groups Branches of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the Alamo Scouts, Merrills Marauders, the Korean War guerrilla command, and conventional airborne units. FSSF Roster of Men Here is a list of the men of the First Special Service Force. Pyke persuaded Mountbatten that such a force would be virtually invulnerable in its glacier strongholds and would tie down large numbers of German troops trying to dislodge it. The regiments were divided into two battalions with three companies in each battalion and three platoons in each company. MacWilliam. The rugged, mountainous terrain and extreme winter conditions made Montana the ideal place for training. The Marvel Comics character Wolverine claimed several times that he was a member of the Devil's Brigade during the war being Canadian-born during the last years of Queen Victoria's reign, it fits. The men of the Service Battalion received high level infantry and physical training and the parachute riggers had airborne training. The weekly training schedule comprised reveille at 0430 from Monday to Saturday followed by calisthenics and then breakfast at 0630. BIA FSSF EPISODE 4 BLEEDING WHITE MONTE MAJO. On 16 June 1942 Eisenhower gave Frederick the task of organizing and commanding the unit that would become known as the First Special Service Force. As a light infantry unit destined for alpine or winter combat it was issued various items of non-standard clothing, equipment and rations, including skis, parkas, haversacks and the Mountain ration. The Johnson weighed about half as much as a BAR, so in classic military style they traded the Marines several hundred pounds of plastic explosive for 800 of the Johnsons. He was replaced by Frederick, following a suggestion by Mountbatten, which was approved by Eisenhower. The Force was organized into three regiments, each made up of two battalions. Leading part of the assault into Rome from the Anzio beachhead was the U.S.-Canadian First Special Service Force (FSSF). Planners intended to use the force to attack hydroelectric plants in occupied Norway, oil fields in Romania, and even targets in Russia. During the war the 1,800-man unit accounted for some 12,000 German casualties, captured some 7,000 prisoners, and sustained an attrition rate of over 600%. In 2006, the Canadian members of the 1st Special Service Force received the United States Army's Combat Infantryman Badge for participation in front-line combat. 1st Regiment was positioned on the force's right front, which comprised one-third of the entire line, while the 3rd Regiment guarded the remaining two-thirds of the line. As a light infantry unit destined for alpine or winter combat, various items of non-standard clothing, equipment and rations, including skis, parkas, haversacks and the mountain ration were issued. All of these units conducted operations in enemy-occupied territory or worked with resistance groups. It stands out only for being the exception to the norm. Soldiers were given Saturday evenings and Sundays off. In the fall of 1942, however, the Allies cancelled Project Plough. The Forcemen underwent rigorous training in a variety of weapons, hand-to-hand combat, demolition techniques, airborne assault, and attack maneuvers. This would have required significant troop lift and covering fighter support. [20] The paths leading up La Difensa were heavily scouted by the force prior to their attack and it was reported to Lt. Col. T.C. They were taken in to families and some forty of the surviving original Forcemen, Canadian and U.S. alike, returned to Montanas Capital City following the war to marry and build families, businesses, even careers in the Montana National Guard. Capt. The intervening years saw the number of Special Forces Groups rise and fall. The marching styles and commands of the American and Canadian armies were mixed and uniforms were made identical. The camp had no training towers and preliminary flights were not carried out, so for many this was their first experience at jumping. This was the original goal Project Plough was designed to undertake, and with that the First Special Service Force lost its mission. The FSSF was then moved to the Anzio beachhead, where it was assigned over 8 miles of the right flank with fewer than 1,100 men, facing a full division of 10,000 Nazi soldiers. [1], The modern American and Canadian special operations forces trace their heritage to this unit. The first soldier or group of soldiers capturing one of these men will be given a 10-day furlough.. [22] The men climbed with ropes tied to one another in the freezing rain. Colonel Frederick worried from the outset that the soldiers from both countries would have trouble forming a cohesive unit. For 99 days the Force conducted continuous patrols and night raids into enemy territory at a cost of 106 killed or missing and over 300 wounded. The unit wore red, white, and blue piping on their garrison cap and on the breast an oval (or trimming) behind their Parachutist Wings. Former and active-duty SOF soldiers from both countries would like to honor the FSSF by hosting this anniversary event at Ft. Harrison, where the Force trained in 1942/1943. [12], The combat force was to be made up of three regiments. The 5th Army Staff had guessed that the battle would last between 45 days, but within two hours, the Germans on La Difensa had retreated to La Remetanea.[23]. While waiting for the orders to attack Remetanea, the 2nd Regiment were resupplied by the 1st and 3rd Regiments, who brought them whiskey and condoms (to keep the barrels of their guns dry in the rain). First Special Service Force Association. Please bring a photo ID to enter the complex, Montana Military Museum 2023 | All Rights Reserved | Fort William Henry Harrison. The attack on 907 was halted after the death of the 1st Battalion CO Lt. Col. T.C. Although seemingly without a mission with the termination of Plough, Allied leaders decided to keep the well trained Force. Indeed, the unit was so secretive, that many soldiers did not know where they were when they arrived in Helena for training, as the windows of the trains carrying the troops were painted black. German prisoners were often surprised at how few men the Force actually contained. The plan was as follows (all regiments were in the 1st Company): At 16:30 hours on 1 December 2nd Regiment would be trucked to within 6 miles (9.7km) of the base of the mountain and march the rest of the way to La Difensa (6-hour march). Usually there is a combined parachute jump, a pass in review, and a formal ball. [13] The formation patch was a red spearhead with the words USA written horizontally and CANADA written vertically. On 27 February 1943, Norwegian commandos destroyed the deuterium (heavy water) production facility at the Vermook hydro-electric plant at Rjukan Falls in Telemark County, Norway. Special Forces traces its lineage to the First Special Service Force (FSSF), constituted on July 5, 1942. They are treacherous, unmerciful and clever. We were established in 1983 as a member-based, charitable 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. The Devils Brigade movie highlighted a minor local legend, the fight with the lumberjacks at the Gold Bar in downtown Helena (spoiler alert, the lumberjacks lose). The FSSF spearheaded the Italian Campaign, taking on the impossible task of clearing the Nazis from the mountains of the Winter Line. For other uses, see. The Forcemen were young men far from home and, unlike soldiers and sailors in larger historically military cities, which often cater to the baser desires, in Helena they found a welcome worthy of the prodigal son. Project PLOUGH was a 1942 unconventional operational concept proposed to the British government by Englishman Geoffery N. Pyke. [27] Shortly after the SSF took over the Mussolini Canal sector, German units pulled back up to 0.5 miles (0.80km) to avoid their aggressive patrols. In order to satisfy the men from both countries, compromises were made. Thousands of Helenans turned out to line both sides of Last Chance Gulch, Helenas main street, as the members of the Force marched north, by company. General Sir Harold Alexander, commanding the Allied Armies in Italy, had formulated the plan to land Allied troops at Anzio in order to outflank German positions in the area. German Field Marshal Albert Kesselring commanded the four German divisions at Anzio, which included the Hermann Goering Division and the 35th Panzer Grenadier Regiment of the 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsfhrer-SS Division. Two uniform elements differentiated an American Force member from a Canadian: 1) the collar insignia had either U.S. or Canada above the crossed arrows; and two, the identification disc, aka "dog tags," worn by the soldier (Americans wore American metal ID tags and Canadians wore Canadian ID discs). It was at Anzio that the Force earned its nickname, the Devils Brigade, for their fierce style of fighting in blackened faces. [6] Furthermore, Frederick concluded that there was no concrete way to evacuate the troops after a mission. Colonel Frederick ran into battle and assisted the litter bearers in clearing the wounded Force members. In July 1942, the Canadian Minister of National Defence, James Ralston, approved the assignment of 697 officers and enlisted men for Project Plough, under the guise that they were forming Canada's first airborne unit, the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion (1CPB). However, the Forces time was almost up. 1) the collar insignia had either U.S. or Canada above the crossed arrows; [24] The successful assault on Difensa was the basis for the 1968 motion picture titled The Devil's Brigade. When they tried to give him a medal for his act of heroism, Wendell declined saying, "Give it to the man who lost his leg". The Supercommandos: First Special Service Force, 1942-1944 An Illustrated History by Robert Todd Ross Published by Schiffer; 1st edition (November 13, 2000), 2000 ISBN 10: 0764311719 ISBN 13: 9780764311710 Seller: Valley Books, Cupertino, CA, U.S.A. The first soldier or group of soldiers capturing one of these men will be given a 10-day furlough."[29]. The FSSF arrived at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation on 4 July 1943. While he desired that the force momentum continue, Frederick ordered a halt in the advance on 907 in order to wait for reinforcements and supplies. On 5 December 1944, the Force was disbanded. Reconnaissance missions performed by the Devils often went as deep as 1,500 feet (460 m) behind enemy lines. For mountain warfare, the men were given baggy ski pants, parkas and a helmet. After the unit's break up, the Canadians were sent to other Canadian units (most of them became replacements for the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion). Just like in World War II, Canada's elite JTF2 and the United States' elite SFOD-D operators were united once again into a special assignment force for the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. [6], Generals Marshall and Eisenhower had already discussed Plough with the British High Command and were unwilling to compromise a chance to open an American front in Europe. Colonel Frederick ran into battle and assisted the litter bearers in clearing the wounded Force members. Ultimately, however, the American uniforms did not differ widely from one another. Previously, American and British forces had suffered many casualties in futile attempts to take the important Camino Ridge. In October 1943, the commander of the United States Fifth Army, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark ordered the FSSF to Italy where its members demonstrated the value of their unique skills and training. To end the ceremony, the Canadian elements were dismissed by being honoured by the American troops with a Pass in Review, eyes right, officers salute. They entered combat on December 3, 1943 with a strength of 1,800 men, and completed their mission on January 17, 1944 with fewer than 500 men. It got the attention of Chief of Combined Operations Vice Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten. On the beachhead in Anzio, for example, a nighttime Force patrol walked into a German minefield and was pinned down by machine gun fire. There are 2 Robert Carroll's in the Roster so if anyone knows which one it . Special Forces units perform seven doctrinal missions: Unconventional Warfare, Foreign . to the men of the FSSF. Canadian and American members of the Special Force who lost their lives are buried near the beach in the Commonwealth Anzio War Cemetery and the American Cemetery in Nettuno, just east of Anzio. After reaching the base of the mountain and having had a single night's rest, 2nd Regiment (600 men total) began their ascent of La Difensa on 2 December at dusk under cover of a heavy artillery barrage. Following the Qubec Conference in August 1943, General Dwight D. Eisenhower was moved to London to plan for the Normandy landings. A reviewing stand was set up at the intersection with Sixth Avenue for local and state government leaders and military officers and each company rendered honors with eyes right as it passed. An entry from a diary found on the body of a German officer read, The Black Devils are all around us every time we come into line, and we never hear them.. On 7 September it moved with the 1st Airborne Task Force to defensive positions on the Franco-Italian border. 2) From October to November: unit tactics and problem solving. After receiving his orders, Frederick began to organize a staff, obtain American and Canadian volunteers, and locate a place to train the new unit. Letters of recruitment were posted to all U.S. Army units in the Southwest and on the Pacific coast. The unit was activated at Fort Harrison on 20 July 1942. The letters called for single men, aged 2135 with three or more years of grammar school. He also claimed he took part in Anzio and Cassino battles. Feb 3rd, 2015 - Photo Eric Morgensen. After a brief rest, the Force was sent into the Anzio Beachhead on 2 February and took up positions on the Allies right flank. Canadian bagpipers were put into American unit marching bands to play "Reveille" every morning. Training lectures were given by veterans of overseas wars in the evenings from Monday to Friday. The force trained with enemy weapons, taking them apart, reassembling and shooting them until they were as proficient with them as with their own. Japanese forces occupying islands off Alaska, 1st Fallschirm-Panzer Division Hermann Gring, 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsfhrer-SS, French Croix de Guerre with Silver-Gilt Star, Canadian Special Operations Forces Command, United States Army Special Operations Command, "Devil's Brigade granted top U.S. honours - The World Daily", https://www.house.gov/feature-stories/2015-2-6-1st-special-service-force-honored#:~:text=They%20earned%20the%20nickname%20the,they%20lost%2C%20they%20killed%2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2xHmdUkcfs, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Special_Service_Force&oldid=1149373782, 1944 disestablishments in the United States, Airborne units and formations of the United States Army, Military units and formations disestablished in 1944, Military units and formations established in 1942, Army units and formations of Canada in World War II, Military units and formations of the United States Army in World War II, Special operations units and formations of the United States Army, Articles with dead external links from December 2017, Articles with permanently dead external links, Short description is different from Wikidata, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 11 April 2023, at 20:41. In Canada Military Intelligence and Logistical Operations 19521988, the Canadian Airborne Regiment 19681995 which formed part of the Special Service Force 1977-1995 and today's Canadian Special Operations Regiment, like United States Army Special Forces, trace their roots to the FSSF.

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